Do Ritalin and Psychostimulants Actually Improve Thinking and Learning?
New research on prescription stimulants and "smart drugs."
Posted July 27, 2025 | Reviewed by Gary Drevitch
Many people believe that taking the stimulant methylphenidate (Ritalin and other brand names) before testing can hike test scores as well as improve overall attention span, whether they have ADHD or not. Methylphenidate (MPH) is a stimulant used to treat ADHD, narcolepsy, and fatigue-related cognitive impairment. The rewarding/reinforcing ability of MPH appears significantly lower than in other stimulants like amphetamines and cocaine.
MPH is sold under various brand names or as a generic. This medication and other ADHD psychostimulants are sometimes used as cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as "smart drugs," "study aids," or "nootropics." MPH, Adderall , and similar medications are widely misused on college campuses by non-ADHD students preparing for exams. Nicknamed “steroids for SATs,” these medications are often illegally purchased—a risky act in the fentanyl era—and their use sometimes is encouraged by parents and tutors. Some students with ADHD “share” their medicine with other students, defeating the entire purpose of the medication—to help keep them focused—and leaving them at risk for prosecution. But experts worry about a high prevalence of prescription stimulant misuse among people who don’t have ADHD. A 2025 study published in JAMA Psychiatry found that among US adults (aged 18-64) taking prescription stimulants, 25.3% reported misuse and 9.0% had prescription stimulant disorder (PSUD).
Some studies show that MPH helps with attention and memory tasks, especially in tired or distracted people; however, this does not mean it automatically boosts actual test scores in non-ADHD individuals.
Most experts think MPH increases brain dopamine and norepinephrine, chemicals involved in motivation , focus, and alertness. Recently, researchers have taken a closer look at how MPH affects non-ADHD people. In one study, 37 healthy adults’ brains were scanned after taking 60 mg of MPH or a placebo . The results showed MPH significantly boosted brain activity and improved performance on attention and memory tasks. This might explain why some people use MPH as a “smart drug,” even if they don’t have ADHD. But the effects vary from person to person.
A recent study looked at how MPH changes brain connections. It found that MPH shifts the brain toward focused thinking, especially in areas related to decision-making and attention. People who experienced this shift performed better on tasks.
In one study, 37 healthy adults underwent PET imaging after taking 60 mg MPH or a placebo. The researchers found MPH boosted performance in attention and working memory tasks. The fact that improvements were reported in people without ADHD may help explain why this medication benefits some individuals but not others, even within non‑ADHD populations. Another study tested how MPH affects driving performance. In this experiment, the drug helped drivers stay in their lanes and drive at a more consistent speed, especially in the second half of the drive. This suggests that MPH may help prevent people from losing focus during boring or repetitive tasks and aid them in driving more safely.
A July 18, 2025, JAMA article reported a study of nearly a quarter million Swedes aged 4-64 who were using ADHD medications and were studied during medicated vs. non-medicated periods. The researchers consistently observed that while subjects took the medication, there were significantly lower risks across these outcomes—self‑harm, injuries, crashes, and crime —regardless of age group or sex . These critical new findings emphasize the performance-enhancing benefits of ADHD pharmacotherapy in real-world outcomes.
Landmark Study Insights
In the landmark Nature study by Joshua S. Siegel et al., methylphenidate (40 mg) was used as an active control, while the scientists also tested psilocybin (25 mg), yielding many insights. MPH effects resembled the brain’s natural activity, making the brain appear rested and functioning well. MPH/stimulants mimic wakeful brain states. Brain imaging also shows that MPH boosts alertness, similar to the effects of getting a good night's sleep. However, the drug does not change deeper brain networks, like the default mode network ( DMN ), which is essential for creativity and reflection . Unlike psychedelics (like psilocybin), MPH doesn’t reshape how different parts of the brain communicate with each other.
MPH did not change the global brain network topology, unlike the profound reconfiguration caused by psilocybin, and MPH doesn’t necessarily lead to profound cognitive changes.
What About Addiction Risks?
There’s also concern about whether MPH increases risks for addiction . Research by Nora Volkow, MD, suggests that people with ADHD using MPH as prescribed may lower their risk of developing substance use problems later in life. This effect seems strongest when treatment starts before adolescence . However, for people without ADHD, MPH does not protect against addiction, and in some cases, especially if the drug is misused (like snorting or injecting it), it increases the risk.
You don’t need an ADHD diagnosis to benefit from taking a psychostimulant for some tasks, especially monotonous ones—although this drug should not be taken unless prescribed by a physician. A small dose (10 mg) was shown to help non-ADHD people drive more steadily and stay alert longer during boring drives. In other studies, higher doses of the drug improved performance on attention and memory tasks—again, even in people without ADHD. However, the effects vary, helping the sleep-deprived most, and not everyone benefits.
As noted, people with ADHD who take MPH early in adolescence and as prescribed may reduce their future risks of addiction. However, in people without ADHD, misusing MPH (especially snorting or injecting it) can increase risks for addiction and thus is not recommended.
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Mark S. Gold, M.D., is a pioneering researcher, professor, and chairman of psychiatry at Yale, the University of Florida, and Washington University in St Louis.
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